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1 Department of Virology, US Army Medical Component-Armed Forces Research Institute of Medical Sciences, Bangkok, Thailand
2 Military Infectious Diseases Research Program, US Army Medical Research and Materiel Command, Fort Detrick, MD 21701, USA
3 Queen Sirikit National Institute of Child Health, Bangkok, Thailand
4 Center for Infectious Disease Dynamics, Department of Biology, The Pennsylvania State University, Mueller Laboratory, University Park, PA 16802, USA
Correspondence
Edward C. Holmes
ech15{at}psu.edu
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ABSTRACT |
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 TOP ABSTRACT INTRODUCTIONMETHODSRESULTS AND DISCUSSIONREFERENCES |
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The GenBank/EMBL/DDBJ accession numbers for the DENV-2 sequences obtained in this study are DQ181807–DQ181901 for the E gene and DQ181797–DQ181806 for complete genomes.
Supplementary material is available in JGV Online.
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INTRODUCTION |
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TOPABSTRACTINTRODUCTIONMETHODSRESULTS AND DISCUSSIONREFERENCES |
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). One virus where such analysis has been particularly informative is Dengue virus (DENV). In this case, phylogenetic analyses have provided valuable preliminary insights into the evolution of virulence and transmissibility that may then be tested by using experimental approaches.
DENV is a single-stranded, positive-sense RNA virus of the genus Flavivirus that comprises four serotypes (DENV-1 to DENV-4) and is transmitted among humans and other higher primates by mosquitoes of the genus Aedes. The importance of DENV lies in its high prevalence, with at least 50 million new cases each year (WHO, 2002), its association with some serious clinical conditions, particularly dengue haemorrhagic fever (DHF) and dengue shock syndrome (DSS), and because it is likely to increase in prevalence following urbanization, global travel and climate change.
Early phylogenetic studies of DENV uncovered abundant genetic variation within each serotype. Further, because this variation was organized as discrete clusters on trees, it could be classified into a series of genotypes or subtypes (Lanciotti et al., 1994, 1997; Lewis et al., 1993; Rico-Hesse, 1990). Most attention has been paid to DENV-2, within which six genotypes have been proposed, five of which are present in humans with differing geographical distributions (Twiddy et al., 2002a). Two genotypes, ‘Asian I’ and ‘Asian II’, are currently restricted to South-East Asia, an ‘American’ genotype is now only found in the Americas and with decreasing frequency, an ‘Asian/American’ genotype has its ancestry in South-East Asia, but spread to the Americas in the early 1980s (Rico-Hesse et al., 1997), and, finally, a ‘Cosmopolitan’ genotype has a wide distribution across the tropical and subtropical world (Twiddy et al., 2002a). There is also growing experimental evidence that Asian strains of DENV-2, which are associated with DHF/DSS, are able to outcompete those sampled from the American genotype (Armstrong & Rico-Hesse, 2001; Cologna & Rico-Hesse, 2003; Cologna et al., 2005), which are rarely associated with severe disease (Watts et al., 1999).
More detailed molecular epidemiological studies have considered the spread of DENV-2 within specific localities, most notably the Caribbean (Foster et al., 2004; Rodriguez-Roche et al., 2005; Uzcategui et al., 2001) and South-East Asia (Rico-Hesse et al., 1998; Sittisombut et al., 1997; Thu et al., 2004; Trent et al., 1989; Twiddy et al., 2002a; Wittke et al., 2002). One locality where such studies have been especially informative is Thailand. Not only is DENV a common paediatric disease in this country, but a series of studies has revealed both its epidemiological and evolutionary dynamics (Burke et al., 1988; Cummings et al., 2004; Endy et al., 2004; Nisalak et al., 2003; Rico-Hesse et al., 1998). In particular, previous phylogenetic studies of DENV-2 in Thailand identified sporadic losses in genetic diversity, compatible with the action of population bottlenecks (Sittisombut et al., 1997). However, whether these bottlenecks are due to the selective replacement of one strain by another, perhaps mediated by complex patterns of cross-immunity, or are caused by stochastic processes is unclear.
Herein, we document the evolution of DENV-2 in Thailand over a 27 year sampling period. In particular, we wished to determine whether there were major changes in the genotype composition of the DENV-2 strains circulating through time, the underlying rate of nucleotide substitution and selection pressures in the virus, and, from this estimate, the age of the current genetic diversity in DENV-2.
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METHODS |
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TOPABSTRACTINTRODUCTIONMETHODSRESULTS AND DISCUSSIONREFERENCES |
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). Grading of dengue disease for these specimens was conducted by using World Health Organization classification guidelines (WHO, 2002).
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and Kuno et al. (1985). The DENV-2 identification of all samples was also confirmed by using RT-PCR as described by Lanciotti et al. (1992). Primary versus secondary DENV-2 infection was determined solely by haemagglutination assay inhibition (HAI) for specimens collected before 1990 and by IgM/IgG ELISA supported by HAI for those specimens collected during and after 1990. HAI was performed by using the method of Clarke & Casals (1958). The anti-dengue IgM/IgG ELISA method used was described previously (Innis et al., 1989).
RNA extraction and RT-PCR to generate DNA fragments used in sequencing.
Virus RNA was extracted from cell-culture supernatant or serum by using a QIAamp Viral RNA Mini kit (Qiagen) according to the manufacturer's instructions. Oligonucleotide primers for generating eight overlapping DNA fragments (nt 1–1264, 798–2516, 2410–4093, 3953–5727, 5618–7562, 7426–9011, 8888–10057 and 9958–10723) spanning the entire DENV-2 genome sequence and oligonucleotide primers for sequencing were designed based on the consensus sequence obtained from 10 DENV-2 strains available in GenBank (accession numbers AF022437, AF119661, AF169678, AF169681, AF169684, AF169687, AF489932, AF208496, AF276619 and M20558) by using the Primer3 program (http://frodo.wi.mit.edu/cgi-bin/primer3/primer3_www.cgi). Genomic RNA was converted to cDNA by using random-hexamer oligonucleotides with the SuperScript First-Strand Synthesis system (Invitrogen) according to the manufacturer's instructions. All DNA fragments, including the envelope (E) gene and the other overlapping DNA fragments that covered the entire genome, were amplified by PCR with Taq DNA polymerase (Roche). The PCR-amplified DNA fragments were purified by using QIAquick PCR Purification kits and a QIAquick Gel Extraction kit (Qiagen) according to the manufacturer's instructions. Purified DNA fragments were used for sequencing.
Sequencing and analysis.
Sequences of DENV-2 sequencing primers used are available in the Supplementary Table in JGV Online. Cycle-sequencing reactions were performed by using a DYEnamic ET Dye Terminator sequencing kit (Amersham Biosciences) according to the manufacturer's instructions. The sequencing products were cleaned by standard precipitation before sequencing in a MegaBACE 500 automated DNA sequencer (Amersham Biosciences). Overlapping nucleic acid sequences were combined for analysis and edited by using the SEQUENCHER software (Gene Codes Corporation).
Phylogenetic analysis.
Three datasets were compiled for phylogenetic analysis (with identical sequences removed in all cases). First, to place the evolution of DENV-2 in Thailand in a global context, we compiled a dataset of 120 E gene sequences (1485 bp in length), representing the full extent of genetic diversity in DENV-2 and utilizing the four sylvatic strains as outgroups to root the tree. This dataset contained a representative sample of 36 of the Thai isolates sequenced here. Second, to reconstruct the evolutionary history of DENV-2 in Bangkok in particular, we inferred a phylogenetic tree for 79 E gene sequences of the viruses newly isolated during 1974–2001 from this city, considered the epicentre of dengue virus transmission within Thailand (Cummings et al., 2004). This tree was rooted between the strains assigned to the Asian I and Asian/American genotypes. Finally, to understand the evolution of the individual genes of DENV-2, we analysed a representative sample of 35 complete genomes (coding regions only; 10 179 bp), including the sequences from 10 Thai isolates newly generated here. As no complete genomes from sylvatic strains are available, this tree was rooted by using a single DENV-1 isolate (Argentina.297/00), which was removed from the subsequent analysis. Trees were run individually for each of the 10 proteins and for the entire polyprotein.
For all datasets, maximum-likelihood (ML) phylogenetic trees were estimated by using PAUP* (Swofford, 2003). In all cases, we used the GTR+I+
4 model of nucleotide substitution with successive rounds of branch swapping. To determine the support for individual groupings on the phylogenetic trees, we performed a bootstrap-resampling analysis using 1000 replicate neighbour-joining trees estimated under the ML substitution model. To determine the position of the root in the complete-genome analysis, an ML tree was inferred by using a 3393 aa alignment under the WAG+ model available in the TREE-PUZZLE program (Strimmer & von Haeseler, 1996). Translated amino acids were used in this case because of the large genetic distance between DENV-2 and the DENV-1 outgroup sequence.
Measurement of selection pressures.
For the 35 complete genomes of DENV-2, we measured the extent of genetic diversity and the underlying selection pressures by using the Datamonkey facility (Kosakovsky Pond & Frost, 2005). Genetic diversity was quantified as the total length of the tree for each gene in terms of the numbers of substitutions per site (denoted TL). Overall and site-specific selection pressures were determined as the ratio of non-synonymous (dN) to synonymous (dS) substitutions per site, estimated by using the SLAC method (incorporating the HKY85 model of nucleotide substitution and phylogenetic trees inferred by using the neighbour-joining method). To obtain a less conservative analysis of selection pressures at individual sites, we also employed the CODEML program (models M7 and M8; Yang et al., 2000), which uses an ML approach to fit the observed data to models of codon substitution that differ in their distribution of dN/dS ratios.
Rates and dates of molecular evolution.
Two different datasets were used to estimate rates of nucleotide substitution in DENV-2, as well as the age of the most recent common ancestor (MRCA) of the viruses sampled. First, we examined the E gene sequences of the 79 Bangkok isolates, as sampling is relatively dense in this case. Second, to obtain rates and dates for the individual genes of DENV-2, we conducted an equivalent analysis for each gene of our complete-genome dataset of 35 viruses. All analyses were undertaken by using the Bayesian Markov Chain Monte Carlo (MCMC) method provided in the BEAST package (http://evolve.zoo.ox.ac.uk/beast/). This analysis was performed by using the GTR+I+4 substitution model under a coalescent model of constant population size, as this gave a better fit to the data under Akaike's information criterion than an exponential-growth model in all cases other than the C gene (see Results). In all cases, we employed a burn-in of 1 million and a final chain length of 10 million. To reveal the uncertainty in the estimation process, we also determined the 95 % high probability density (HPD) intervals in each case.
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RESULTS AND DISCUSSION |
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TOPABSTRACTINTRODUCTIONMETHODSRESULTS AND DISCUSSIONREFERENCES |
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). However, the evolutionary relationships among the genotypes are harder to determine, with none of the inter-genotype nodes supported by >70 % bootstrap replicates. Those strains sampled from Thailand fell into three of the human genotypes. The vast majority were identified as the Asian I genotype. However, five isolates sampled from 1980 to 1991 fell into the Asian/American genotype and a single Thai strain, D2.P8-377/69, sampled in 1969 fell into the Cosmopolitan genotype. Consequently, since 1991, all DENV-2 isolates sampled from Thailand belong to the Asian I genotype. Given the success of the Asian/American and Cosmopolitan genotypes in establishing DENV infections in other localities, it seems likely that the presumed disappearance of these viruses from Thailand is due to complex immunological interactions with other serotypes rather than any intrinsic fitness deficit compared with the Asian I viruses, although this will require more study.
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Our phylogenetic analysis of the 79 DENV-2 E gene sequences sampled from Bangkok similarly revealed a strong temporal structure, with the oldest sampled viruses tending to fall closest to the root of the tree (Fig. 2). This allowed us to undertake a relatively precise estimate of the rate of nucleotide substitution in DENV-2 by using Bayesian methods. This resulted in a rate of 8·533x10–4 substitutions per site per year (HPD, 7·174x10–4–9·952x10–4 substitutions per site per year) and is hence within the range of most other estimates obtained for DENV (summarized by Twiddy et al., 2003). The overall age of this tree, corresponding to the divergence between the Asian I and Asian/American genotypes, was approximately 57 years (HPD, 48–67 years). Hence, although the Asian/American genotype did not invade Latin America until the early 1980s (Rico-Hesse et al., 1997), it has a deeper evolutionary separation from those viruses assigned to Asian genotype I.
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; Rico-Hesse et al., 1998; Shurtleff et al., 2001). Further, the fact that there is no apparent increase in the frequency of DENV-2 strains associated with severe disease indicates that high virulence, itself associated with high viraemia (Vaughn et al., 2000), does not guarantee long-term evolutionary success.
Analysis of complete genomes of DENV-2
To determine whether the evolutionary relationships observed for the E gene applied to the whole DENV-2 genome, we conducted a further phylogenetic analysis using the sequences of 35 whole genomes (coding regions only). As in the case of the E gene phylogeny, this tree clearly distinguishes among the five human genotypes of DENV-2, all with strong bootstrap support (Fig. 3). However, in contrast to the E gene tree, those viruses assigned to the American genotype are the most divergent. Such a change in phylogenetic position could reflect the divergent nature of the outgroup sequence used in this case, as the mean amino acid distance between the DENV-1 and DENV-2 isolates is approximately 40 % under the ML substitution model. Another notable difference with the E gene tree is that the Asian/American genotype is now related more closely to the Asian I and II genotypes than to the Cosmopolitan genotype. Moreover, there is strong bootstrap support for this branching order, with all relevant nodes found in 100 % of replicates. However, individual gene trees varied greatly in topology, generating six different phylogenies (see Supplementary Figure, available in JGV Online). The phylogeny in four of the 10 genes (C, NS1, NS4B and NS5) was as that depicted in the whole-genome tree. In contrast, the Cosmopolitan and Asian/American genotypes formed the closest pairing in the E and NS4A genes and a variety of other patterns were seen in other genes. Given that the inter-genotypic nodes in these individual gene trees are often associated with low bootstrap values, such variable phylogenies seem most compatible with a lack of phylogenetic resolution caused by a rapid genetic diversification over the last century.
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). There was relatively little variation (1·6-fold) in the overall extent of genetic diversity among the individual genes of DENV-2 as measured by total tree length, although there was rather more in the overall rates of nucleotide substitution (2·8-fold, although most HPD values overlap). The tree with the shortest length and, hence, the lowest rate of nucleotide substitution was from the capsid (TL=0·358, mean rate=3·956x10–4 substitutions per site per year), whilst that with the longest length and thus the highest rate of evolutionary change was NS2A (TL=0·578, mean rate=11·160x10–4 substitutions per site per year). Consequently, if the mean substitution rate across the DENV-2 genome is approximately 10–3 substitutions per site per year, then approximately 10 mutations are fixed per 10 kb genome per year. This rate is clearly lower than most estimates of the intrinsic mutation rate in RNA viruses, at roughly one mutation per genome per replication (Drake & Holland, 1999). The most likely explanation for such a disparity in rate is that the majority of mutations that arise during DENV replication are deleterious and removed by purifying selection, thereby reducing the long-term substitution rate.
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). A recent study of DENV-4 in Thailand also identified NS2A as the most variable gene (Klungthong et al., 2004) and an analysis of DENV-4 evolution in Puerto Rico identified likely positive selection at three amino acid sites in NS2A, although their functional consequences could not be ascertained (Bennett et al., 2003). It is therefore evident that more work is required to identify the cause of the elevated levels of genetic variation in NS2A, and particularly whether it might be associated with escape from cytotoxic T-lymphocyte (CTL) recognition, which has been shown to be important in shaping evolutionary patterns in NS3 (Mongkolsapaya et al., 2003; Simmons et al., 2005).
In an attempt to determine their overall selective landscape, we compared the ratio of non-synonymous to synonymous substitutions in the individual genes of DENV-2. Again, there was relatively little variation (threefold) among genes, with the highest dN/dS value seen in the capsid gene (0·099) and lowest in NS3 (0·033), which encodes the viral helicase. Overall, such low dN/dS ratios are again indicative of the action of strong purifying selection, which appears to be true of arthropod-borne viruses as a whole (Woelk & Holmes, 2002). This was confirmed in a codon-specific analysis of selection pressures using both the SLAC and CODEML methods. Under the former, we found no evidence for positive selection in our complete-genome alignment, whereas the latter detected adaptive evolution (P<0·05) at only two codons, amino acid positions 135 and 637 in NS5, both of which have been identified previously (Twiddy et al., 2002b; full results available from authors on request).
Finally, we explored the age of the sampled genetic diversity in human DENV-2. Most genes gave the age of the MRCA of human DENV-2 as approximately 100–120 years ago, with relatively tight HPD values (80–178 years). The exception was the capsid gene, which gave a mean age of the MRCA of 174 years ago and had relatively large HPD values (91–283 years). Moreover, whilst all other genes of DENV-2 supported a model of constant population size through time, the capsid gene favoured a model of exponential population growth. It is therefore clear that the capsid gene differs in its evolutionary dynamics from the other DENV-2 genes; it is evolving more slowly, has accumulated proportionally more amino acid substitutions and has older polymorphism. The underlying cause of these differing evolutionary dynamics is unclear, although it is known that the DENV capsid protein, which performs the critical role of RNA genome encapsidation, also contains CTL epitopes (Gagnon et al., 1996), as well as potential B-cell epitopes (Anandarao et al., 2005). However, the low substitution rate also hints at the existence of RNA secondary structures.
Overall, our estimates of the time of the MRCA of DENV-2 in humans are compatible with previous estimates (Twiddy et al., 2003) and suggest that current diversity in DENV arose at the end of the 19th and beginning of the 20th centuries, when the aetiology of dengue disease was first described (Gubler, 2004). Such a recent estimate also means that no DENV-2 lineages from the earliest described dengue epidemics, at the end of the 18th century (Gubler, 1997), have survived to the present day. The burgeoning genetic diversity of DENV, such as that demonstrated here in Thailand, is probably a function of the hyperendemicity of the virus and will also facilitate the production of strains with varying phenotypic properties, including virulence and transmissibility.
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS |
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Received 1 September 2005;
accepted 1 December 2005.
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N. Vasilakis, E. C. Holmes, E. B. Fokam, O. Faye, M. Diallo, A. A. Sall, and S. C. Weaver Evolutionary Processes among Sylvatic Dengue Type 2 Viruses J. Virol., September 1, 2007; 81(17): 9591 - 9595. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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 Y. Zhou, M. P. Mammen Jr, C. Klungthong, P. Chinnawirotpisan, D. W. Vaughn, S. Nimmannitya, S. Kalayanarooj, E. C. Holmes, and C. Zhang Comparative analysis reveals no consistent association between the secondary structure of the 3'-untranslated region of dengue viruses and disease syndrome J. Gen. Virol., September 1, 2006; 87(9): 2595 - 2603. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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