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School of Biotechnology and Biomolecular Sciences, Faculty of Science, University of New South Wales, Sydney 2052, Australia
Correspondence
Peter A. White
p.white{at}unsw.edu.au
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ABSTRACT |
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 TOP ABSTRACT INTRODUCTIONMETHODSRESULTSDISCUSSIONREFERENCES |
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2 method. A total of 20 NoV recombinant types were identified in circulation worldwide. The recombination point is the ORF1/2 overlap in all isolates except one, which demonstrated a double recombination event within the polymerase region. |
INTRODUCTION |
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TOPABSTRACTINTRODUCTIONMETHODSRESULTSDISCUSSIONREFERENCES |
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; Tu et al., 2007; Widdowson et al., 2004) and NoV infection is now regarded as the most common cause of acute gastroenteritis in people of all ages (Atmar & Estes, 2006). In addition, the incidence of NoV infection is predicted to rise further (Widdowson et al., 2005a).
NoV is a small, round virion of 27–35 nm in diameter and possesses a single-stranded, positive-sense, polyadenylated RNA genome of 7400–7700 nt. The NoV genome consists of three open reading frames (ORFs). ORF1 encodes the non-structural proteins, including an NTPase, protease and RNA-dependent RNA polymerase (RdRp). ORF2 encodes the major capsid protein of 58–60 kDa (Hardy, 2005) and overlaps the 3' end of ORF1 by 17–20 bp, depending on the genogroup. ORF3 encodes a minor capsid protein of 22–29 kDa (Glass et al., 2000; Pletneva et al., 2001; Seah et al., 1999).
NoVs are divided into five genogroups (GI–GV), but only GI, GII and GIV are known to infect humans (Vinje et al., 2004), with GII the most prevalent in acute cases of adult gastroenteritis (Atmar & Estes, 2006). GII contains porcine as well as human strains, GIII contains bovine strains and GV contains murine strains (Zheng et al., 2006). GI is further subdivided into at least eight genotypes, GII into 17 genotypes and GIII into two genotypes (Zheng et al., 2006).
RNA recombination is one of the major driving forces of virus evolution (reviewed by Lai, 1992; Worobey & Holmes, 1999). Virus recombination can affect phylogenetic groupings, increase the virulence of the virus, confuse molecular epidemiological studies and have major implications in vaccine design. A recombinant NoV can be defined as one that clusters with two distinct groups of NoV strains when two different regions (normally the capsid and polymerase) of the genome are subjected to phylogenetic analysis (Bull et al., 2005). Naturally occurring NoV recombinants have been reported within three of the five genogroups, GI, GII and GIII (Han et al., 2004; Hardy et al., 1997; Katayama et al., 2002a). Recently, we reported a number of unique recombinant NoV GII types, where a NoV recombinant type defines a unique polymerase/capsid combination, e.g. GII.4/GII.3 (Bull et al., 2005).
Until recently, NoV genotyping was performed solely on the polymerase region of ORF1 (Katayama et al., 2002b). However, later studies showed better segregation of the different strains into their respective genotypes by phylogenetic analysis of nucleotide sequences within the capsid region (Vinje et al., 2004). However, genotyping based solely on the capsid sequence may not be sufficient with the growing identification of naturally occurring recombinant NoVs, particularly as the recombination breakpoint is close to or within the ORF1/2 overlap (Bull et al., 2005). Thus, recombinants would be missed by sequencing only the capsid region. Moreover, genotyping of recombinants has been further complicated as recombinants may cluster with a capsid genotype but the polymerase sequence does not cluster with polymerases from characterized strains. These unclassified polymerase clusters therefore need a classification system that separates them from wild-type polymerases that have the same genotype as the corresponding capsid genotype. One such polymerase system has been proposed and used for the novel Hilversum-like polymerase cluster (Gallimore et al., 2004a), which was termed GII.b (Buesa et al., 2002). For consistency, we have adhered to this system with the novel polymerase regions categorized in this study, GII.a, GII.c and GII.d.
Increased awareness and identification of naturally occurring recombinants worldwide has led to a rise in their report (Ambert-Balay et al., 2005; Bon et al., 2005; Bull et al., 2005; Etherington et al., 2006; Gallimore et al., 2004a, 2004b, 2005; Han et al., 2004; Hansman et al., 2004a, 2004b; Iritani et al., 2003; Katayama et al., 2002b; Martinez et al., 2002; Oliver et al., 2006; Phan et al., 2006a, 2006c; Reuter et al., 2005, 2006; Sasaki et al., 2006; Tsugawa et al., 2006; van den Berg et al., 2005; Wang et al., 2005). However, difficulties in genotyping and classifying the polymerase region of NoV GII has led to confusion, with many groups claiming a recombinant is novel when it has already been published as a recombinant. For example, we first reported the recombinant Hu/NoV/Picton/03/AU as novel (Bull et al., 2005). This recombinant NoV has the novel GII.b polymerase and a GII.1 capsid. Subsequently, almost identical strains with the same polymerase and capsid genotypes were reported as novel recombinants by three other groups (Ambert-Balay et al., 2005; Reuter et al., 2006; Vidal et al., 2006). In addition, another recombinant type, also with the novel GII.b polymerase but with a GII.3 capsid, was first reported in 2001 (Buesa et al., 2002), but because Buesa et al. (2002) did not release the capsid sequence on GenBank, the same recombinant type was subsequently reported as novel in four separate publications (Ambert-Balay et al., 2005; Bull et al., 2005; Gallimore et al., 2004a; Reuter et al., 2006). The GII.b/GII.3 NoV recombinant caused hundreds of outbreaks of gastroenteritis across Europe in 2000 and 2001 (Ambert-Balay et al., 2005; Bon et al., 2005; Gallimore et al., 2004a, 2005; Reuter et al., 2006) and subsequently multiple outbreaks across Australasia and Asia (Bull et al., 2005; Phan et al., 2006a, 2006c). The first full-length GII.b polymerase sequence reported in the database was NoV/SydneyC14/02/AU (GenBank accession no. AY845056) (Bull et al., 2005). The GII.b polymerase has now been associated with four different capsid genotypes, GII.1, GII.2, GII.3 and GII.4 (Reuter et al., 2006), none of which are speculated to be the GII.b polymerases matching native capsid sequence (Reuter et al., 2006).
The aim of this study was to clarify some of the confusion in NoV recombination identification by characterizing the number of known NoV recombinants from all five genogroups circulating worldwide. In addition, we have promoted a system for tentatively classifying the polymerase clusters that cannot be linked to a capsid genotype. The genetic relationship among all identified recombinant types was explored and the recombination breakpoints accurately determined using three methods.
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METHODS |
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TOPABSTRACTINTRODUCTIONMETHODSRESULTSDISCUSSIONREFERENCES |
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) from the GenBank/EMBL sequence databases. The breakpoint for NoV recombinants has been identified previously within the ORF1 and ORF2 overlap (Bull et al., 2005). Therefore, strains were defined as recombinant if their polymerase and capsid regions segregated into different genotypic clusters in the two separate trees: one of the 3' end of ORF1 and the other of the 5' end of ORF2. ORF1 and ORF2 sequences were only included if they had been obtained from a single amplicon. The size of the ORF1 and ORF2 regions analysed was dependent on the length of the sequences available. The ORF1 tree comprised 277, 420, 210, 819 and 1003 bp of the 3' end of ORF1 for NoV GI, GII, GIII, GIV and GV, respectively. The ORF2 tree comprised 295, 550, 898, 1648 and 1000 bp of the 5' end of ORF2 for NoV GI, GII, GIII, GIV and GV, respectively. Nucleotide sequence alignments were performed using CLUSTAL W (Thompson et al., 1994) in MEGA 3.1 (Kumar et al., 2004) and were visualized in GeneDoc (Nicholas et al., 1997). Phylogenetic trees were constructed using the neighbour-joining method and were based on the Tajima–Nei distance algorithm (Tajima & Nei, 1984). Bootstrap values were determined from 100 bootstrap resamplings of the original data.
Two further methods were used to confirm the NoV recombinants identified by phylogenetic analysis and included the maximum 2 method (Maynard Smith, 1992) and SimPlot (version 2.5) (Lole et al., 1999). The maximum 2 method and SimPlot are also able to identify putative recombination breakpoints. The maximum 2 method uses the distribution of polymorphic sites between a probable recombinant and its putative ‘parents’ to estimate a recombination junction. The maximum 2 method of Maynard Smith has been recognized as one of the most accurate when compared independently with 13 other methods (Posada, 2002). SimPlot is a diversity plot and was the simplest of the methods used. SimPlot uses a graphical window to display the genetic distance comparisons between a chosen sequence and comparison sequences.
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RESULTS |
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TOPABSTRACTINTRODUCTIONMETHODSRESULTSDISCUSSIONREFERENCES |
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2 method was the third analysis performed on the suspected recombinants and strains were defined as recombinants if the crossover event was found to be significant (P<0.01). Analysis of 120 NoV strains with these three methods identified 29 recombinants that could be grouped into 20 unique, naturally occurring NoV recombinant types: one NoV GI, 17 NoV GII and two NoV GIII (Table 1). All GIV and GV strains available in GenBank, four and seven strains, respectively, were analysed for recombination but none was identified as recombinant (data not shown).
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). Using phylogenetic analysis, seven NoV GI recombinants were identified, including the previously reported GI recombinant NLV/WUGI/01/JP (Katayama et al., 2002b) (Fig. 1). All seven recombinants were related (93–98 % nucleotide identity), with a GI.2 polymerase region and a GI.6 capsid, and therefore all belonged to the same recombinant type, NoV GI.2/GI.6 (Fig. 1) (Table 1
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2 method. Due to the large number of NoV GII sequences in the GenBank database, only recombinant prototypes (Table 1) were chosen for analysis, and duplicates of these recombinant types were not included in the analysis of the GII recombinants. All 17 prototype GII recombinants were a combination of one of eight different polymerase genotypes and one of nine different capsid genotypes (Fig. 2, Table 1). Genotyping of the polymerase region from the 17 recombinants revealed that five belonged to GII.4 and four belonged to the novel GII.b polymerase cluster (Buesa et al., 2002). It should be noted that due to a double recombination event, the sequence from one of the GII.4 polymerases (NoV/771/05/IRL) was a combination of two polymerase genotypes, GII.4 and GII.d; however, as the majority of the sequence was GII.4, it was defined as a GII.4 polymerase. The remaining eight polymerases belonged to GII.2, GII.5, GII.6 and three novel genotypes, termed in this study GII.a, GII.c and GII.d (Table 1). The novel polymerases had greater than 15 % nucleotide difference compared with other classified polymerase genotypes. The capsid genotypes associated with recombinant NoV were more diverse with one GII.1, three GII.2, four GII.3, two GII.4, two GII.5, one GII.7, one GII.10, one GII.12 and two GII.15 (Fig. 2) (Table 1).
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). In the present study, NoV/Kunming/04/Ch was defined as a recombinant as it met the criteria for all three methods; although, the P value for its recombinant breakpoint was higher than the P values calculated for the other recombinants, it was still less than 0.01 (Table 1).
NoV/Nyiregyhaza/1057/02/HUN (Reuter et al., 2006) is also a suspected recombinant, with a GII.b polymerase and GII.4 capsid, but the polymerase and capsid sequence for this strain were not available for analysis. However, it was defined as a recombinant prototype in this study because, in contrast to Hu/Noguchi-8/00/GH (described below), the GII.b/GII.4 recombinant type has been reported elsewhere (Bon et al., 2005). Additionally, its polymerase and capsid regions grouped into two phylogenetically distinct and well-characterized clusters: GII.b and GII.4 (Fig. 2).
Unconfirmed NoV GII recombinants
In this study, there were four suspected recombinants that failed to meet the recombination analysis criteria for the three methods utilized. Hu/Noguchi-8/00/GH (GenBank accession no. DQ013132) is a previously reported recombinant (Armah et al., 2006). However, Hu/Noguchi-8/00/GH could not be confirmed as a recombinant in this study as its polymerase sequence has not been released on GenBank/EMBL and therefore we were unable to perform our own analysis. Armah et al. (2006) reported that Hu/Noguchi-8/00/GH clusters with GII.8 in the polymerase region and GII.14 in the capsid region. Our analysis of the capsid region classified this capsid sequence as GII.13 (according to Zheng et al., 2006) (data not shown). Additionally, in the polymerase region, GII.8 clusters closely together with GII.6, GII.7, GII.8, GII.9, GII.13 and GII.14 (Fankhauser et al., 2002; Fig. 2). Consequently, Hu/Noguchi-8/00/GH may not be a true recombinant, but could be a divergent GII.13 wild type.
Phylogenetic and SimPlot analysis of NoV/Yuri/02/JP and NoV/OsakaNI/04/JP indicated that they may also be recombinants, with a putative crossover event around the ORF1/2 overlap (Fig. 3a, b). Both Yuri/02/JP and OsakaNI/04/JP had a GII.d polymerase (Fig. 2). However, genotyping of their capsids revealed that OsakaNI/04/JP clustered with GII.2 strains, whilst Yuri/02/JP did not group with any of the 17 genotypes published for NoV GII (Zheng et al., 2006) and differed by 28 % over full-length ORF2 nucleotide sequences compared with any other sequence in GenBank. Therefore, in this study, it was tentatively termed GII.18 for its capsid genotype. However, the maximum 2 analysis failed to find a significant breakpoint (P>0.05) and therefore they were not classified as recombinants in this study. The lack of statistical significance is probably due to the inability to find a suitable wild-type parental strain related to the recombinant in the polymerase region. However, the divided clustering of their capsids indicates that at least one, if not both, of these strains is a recombinant.
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). Its polymerase clustered with GII.4 and its capsid clustered with GII.14 (Fig. 2). However, the maximum 2 method was unable to find a statistically significant breakpoint, probably also due to the unavailability of a non-recombinant parental strain with a related polymerase gene. Therefore, it was not included as a recombinant type in this study.
Intragenotype recombination in NoV GII
All 20 recombinants defined in this study were intergenotypic recombinants, i.e. recombinants formed from two different genotypes. Whilst intragenotypic recombination, i.e. recombination between strains from the same genotype, is possible, it is difficult to identify and detection would require highly sensitive methods. Nevertheless, nine intragenotype NoV GII recombinants have been published.
Intragenotype recombination has been reported for Hu/NLV/Saitama U3/02/JP (GenBank accession no. AB039776) (Etherington et al., 2006) and Hu/NLV/GII/MD145-12/87/US (GenBank accession no. AY032605) (Etherington et al., 2006). In the present study, Saitama U3/02/JP clustered with GII.6 strains in both the polymerase and capsid genes and MD145-12/87/US clustered with GII.4 strains in both the polymerase and capsid genes (Fig. 2). SimPlot analysis and the maximum 2 method were not able to detect a recombination breakpoint (P>0.05) within Saitama U3/02/JP and MD145-12/87/US. Therefore, we cannot confirm either strain as a recombinant NoV.
Recently, seven other GII NoVs were reported as recombinants with crossover points distributed across the capsid gene (Phan et al., 2006a; Rohayem et al., 2005). They were all defined as intragenotypic recombinants with less than 5 % variation between the two parental strains and the putative recombinant. Analysis of these seven strains failed to identify them as recombinants by either SimPlot analysis or the maximum 2 method (P>0.05). Therefore, as our analysis was not able to detect any significant recombination events, these seven strains were not defined as recombinants.
NoV GIII recombinants
Nineteen NoV GIII strains representing two genotypes were compiled from GenBank and were analysed for recombination (Fig. 4). Three recombinants were identified: Bo/NoV/B-1SVD/03/US, Bo/NoV/CV521-OH/02/US and Bo/NoV/Thirsk10/00/UK (Fig. 5) (Table 1). CV521-OH/02/US and Thirsk10/00/UK both had a GIII.1 polymerase and a GIII.2 capsid. B-1SVD/03/US had a GIII.2 polymerase and a GIII.1 capsid. Therefore, the three recombinants were categorized into two recombinant types, NoV GIII.1/GIII.2 and NoV GIII.2/GIII.1.
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2 method, were plotted in relation to the NoV GII prototype strain, Lordsdale (GenBank accession no. X86557) (Fig. 6). All crossover sites, with the exception of the crossover sites for recombinant 771/05/IRL, calculated by SimPlot analysis and the maximum 2 method were between –104 and +32, and had a mean position of –16 and –19, respectively. Therefore, the mean crossover point lies between 16 and 19 nt upstream of the start of the ORF1/2 overlap.
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2 analysis, –203/–594 and –221/–596, respectively (Fig. 3d). Both of these recombination points in 771/05/IRL occurred well upstream of the ORF1/2 overlap. Recombinant 771/05/IRL shares over 90 % sequence identity over 1063 bp with GII.4 strain NoV/Sakai/04-179/05/JP except for the region between approximately –595 and –212 where identity drops to approximately 60 % and identity to another GII.d strain, OsakaNI/04/JP, is over 90 %. Except for this 383 bp region, sequence identity to OsakaNI/04/JP is less than 84 % (Fig. 3d). Due to the low sequence identity between the two putative parental strains, OsakaNI/04/JP and NoV/Sakai/04-179/05/JP, but the high sequence identity of the recombinant to its two putative parental strains, the two breakpoints, –590 and –216, were able to be determined visually from the sequence alignment (Fig. 7). The breakpoints corresponded to the breakpoints determined by SimPlot analysis and the maximum 2 method.
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The GII.b polymerase was associated with four genotypically different capsids: GII.1, GII.3, GII.4 and GII.14, indicating four separate recombination events for viruses with a GII.b polymerase. The three GII.b recombinant-type polymerases associated with GII.1, GII.3 or GII.14 capsid shared greater than 95 % identity across 420 nt of the 3' end of the polymerase region.
The GII.4 polymerase was associated with five genotypically different capsids: GII.2, GII.3, GII.10, GII.12 and GII.14 (Table 1, Fig. 2). Four of the five recombinant GII.4 polymerases clustered together (98 % nucleotide identity) and independently of the GII.4 polymerases that have been associated with four pandemics in the last decade, Farmington Hills, US95/96 (representative strains of US95/96 in Fig. 2 include Burwash Landing and Miami Beach 326), Hunter and 2006a (Fig. 2).
The GII.d polymerase was associated with four genotypically different capsids: GII.2, GII.3, GII.5 and GII.18 (Fig. 2). Furthermore, this study indicated that all of the GII.d polymerases in the database are either confirmed or suspected recombinants.
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DISCUSSION |
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TOPABSTRACTINTRODUCTIONMETHODSRESULTSDISCUSSIONREFERENCES |
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) and proposed a genotyping system for novel polymerase clusters.
NoV strains were only defined as recombinants in this study if they were identified as recombinant NoV using all three methods: phylogenetic, SimPlot and maximum 2 analysis. Phylogenetic analysis is useful when a parental strain cannot be identified for one of the regions being examined. SimPlot analysis and the maximum 2 method are useful for identifying the breakpoint, but require parental strains. For NoV, this is a problem due to the large genetic diversity of circulating strains. However, phylogenetic analysis cannot be solely relied on to identify recombinants, as the non-antigenic region (ORF1) does not cluster as definitively as the antigenic (ORF2) region. Thus, low bootstrap support for some polymerase genotypes may result in artefactual identification of some recombinants (Vinje et al., 2004). Therefore, it is important for recombinant analysis also to use other methods, such as SimPlot and maximum 2, that are independent of phylogeny.
In this study, we analysed NoV strains from all five NoV genogroups for recombination and confirmed 20 unique naturally occurring NoV recombinant types: one NoV GI, 17 NoV GII and two NoV GIII (Table 1). The GI recombinant, WUGI/01/JP (GenBank accession no. AB081723), has been identified previously (Katayama et al., 2002b) and is the prototype for this recombinant type. There were six other WUGI/01/JP-like strains identified from GenBank and they were isolated in Japan and the USA between 2000 and 2004, suggesting that this recombinant type virus is prevalent.
Two GIII recombinant types were identified. The GIII.2/GIII.1 recombinant type was identified for the first time in this study. The second recombinant type, GIII.1/GIII.2, includes the previously published strains Thirsk10/00/UK and CV521-OH/02/US (Han et al., 2004; Oliver et al., 2004). Interestingly, Thirsk10/00/UK and CV521-OH/02/US had not been recognized previously as being the same recombinant type, probably because the two strains have low sequence similarity (84 % nucleotide identity over ORF1 and ORF2), thereby suggesting that recombination may have occurred some time ago and that both isolates have since diverged.
Of the 17 NoV GII recombinant types identified, GII.4 and GII.b were the two most common polymerases regardless of their corresponding capsid genotypes. The term GII.b was first published by Buesa et al. (2002) and arose as its polymerase forms a novel cluster with no known matching capsid sequence. The GII.b polymerase has been associated with outbreaks across the world (Bon et al., 2005; Buesa et al., 2002; Bull et al., 2006; Lindell et al., 2005; Maunula & Von Bonsdorff, 2005; Nygard et al., 2003; Reuter et al., 2006). Furthermore, since its first isolation in 2000 with a GII.3 capsid, it has been associated with three further capsid types (Bon et al., 2005; Reuter et al., 2006). Whether this is a result of recent recombination events or more thorough epidemiological investigations is unknown.
The GII.4 and GII.b polymerases are the two most prevalent polymerases circulating around the world (Bull et al., 2006; Gallimore et al., 2004a; Phan et al., 2006b; Reuter et al., 2005). Therefore, the probability of finding a GII.4 or GII.b recombinant is higher as recombination requires co-infection with two NoV strains. However, this is also true of the capsid and, despite GII.4 being the most prevalent capsid type worldwide (Bull et al., 2006), there were only two recombinant types with a GII.4 capsid (not including recombinant 771/05/IRL). The lack of multiple polymerase genotypes associated with GII.4 capsids and the fact that the GII.b and GII.4 polymerases are each associated with four and five different capsid types, respectively, suggests that the polymerase may be a driving factor in recombination.
All of the NoV recombinants from GI, GII and GIII, with the exception of one NoV GII recombinant, had a crossover point either within or close to the ORF1/2 overlap. Recombination between animal RNA viruses has been shown to require sequence homology, poor processivity of the RdRp, or complex secondary structures, such as stem–loop structures, that will lead to interaction of the parental strains (Kim & Kao, 2001). The ORF1/2 overlap includes the subgenomic promoter (Asanaka et al., 2005) and consequently has a stem–loop structure that is 100 % conserved within each genogroup (Bull et al., 2005). This is consistent with the proposed model (Bull et al., 2005), which suggests that recombination occurs when the polymerase switches templates mid-transcription due to complex secondary structure at the start of ORF2. Consequently, polymerases with poor processivity would switch templates at a higher frequency than other RdRps. The ability of polymerases to switch templates at the start of ORF2 is advantageous because it can help viruses escape evolutionary bottlenecks (Coyne et al., 2006; Muller, 1964). This is because ORF2 encodes the capsid protein, VP1, which contains the antigenic regions. Therefore, viruses that are able to swap their capsid coat are able to escape immune responses and possible viral extinction.
Unlike the GII.b and GII.4 recombinants, the other recombinants do not seem to have diffused as widely throughout the community. The reason why some strains dominate over others is unknown, but the fact that the GII.b polymerase is associated with four different capsid types suggests that it may use recombination as a way of escaping population bottlenecks in the host population, as evidenced by the retention of polymerase genes but the loss of their equivalent capsid types.
Whilst there are clearly recombination hotspots within the picornaviruses and coronaviruses, recombination has been seen to occur in vitro throughout the entire genome of both (reviewed by Lai, 1992). However, recombination has not been detected within the capsid regions encoding VP1 and VP3 in picornaviruses (reviewed by Lai, 1992). Whilst recombination within the capsid gene has been suggested for NoV GII (Etherington et al., 2006; Phan et al., 2006a; Rohayem et al., 2005), analysis of those strains in this study did not yield any statistically significant breakpoints. For picornaviruses, it has been speculated that recombination in the capsid gene could lead to non-functional or unstable products and is consequently selected against (reviewed by Lai, 1992).
Recently, the first NoV recombinant with a breakpoint outside the ORF1/2 overlap was detected (Waters et al., 2007). Further analysis of this strain, 771/05/IRL, in this study revealed that it had a double breakpoint, which was not reported by Waters et al. (2007). Our study is the first report of a double recombination event in NoV. The region where the genetic exchange occurred could clearly be seen in the nucleotide alignments and matched the crossover sites identified by SimPlot and the maximum 2 method. The second putative crossover site occurred in a region with high sequence similarity between the two parental strains; the putative crossover point at the 5' end of the genome, however, shared very little sequence similarity between the putative parental strains. The lack of a visible RNA promoter or secondary structure in this region suggests that this recombination event may have arisen by other mechanisms to those that induce a breakpoint in or around the ORF1/2 overlap. However, the lack of insertions or deletions at the putative crossover sites suggests that it is a result of homologous recombination and lends support to the template switching model proposed for NoV (Bull et al., 2005).
NoV has been detected in a wide range of mammals, including humans, mice, cows and pigs (Wang et al., 2005), with strong evidence of zoonotic transmission (Widdowson et al., 2005b). Interspecies exchange has been reported for many RNA viruses, the most notable being reassortment (equivalent to recombination in segmented genomes) between the human and avian influenza strains to produce a highly virulent virus (de Jong et al., 1997). In NoV, intergenogroup recombination could result in recombination between different mammalian NoVs. Indeed, intergenogroup recombination in a closely related calicivirus, sapovirus, has already been reported (Hansman et al., 2005). Therefore, understanding recombination in NoV is important, as recombination between the different mammalian NoVs may result in the emergence of new NoV variants, with potentially different pathogenesis and virulence.
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Received 16 July 2007;
accepted 23 August 2007.
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