| HOME | HELP | FEEDBACK | SUBSCRIPTIONS | ARCHIVE | SEARCH | TABLE OF CONTENTS |
|
|
|
|||||||
|
|||||||||
Short Communication |
Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture and Life Sciences, Iowa State University, Ames, IA 50011, USA
Correspondence
Lyric C. Bartholomay
lyricb{at}iastate.edu
 |
ABSTRACT |
|---|
 TOP ABSTRACT MAIN TEXTREFERENCES |
|---|
Published online ahead of print on 6 November 2008 as DOI 10.1099/vir.0.005116-0.
|
MAIN TEXT |
|---|
|
TOPABSTRACTMAIN TEXTREFERENCES |
|---|
; Hardy et al., 1983), and (ii) a vehicle to ensure dissemination from the midgut to the salivary glands (Romoser et al., 2004).
In lepidopteran larvae infected with baculoviruses, virus entry into midgut epithelial cells is followed by infection of the tracheoles, the oxygen transporting tissue in insects. In several lepidopteran species, insect blood cells, called haemocytes, facilitate amplification of baculoviruses as well as virus dissemination from tracheoles to secondary organs (Engelhard et al., 1994; Keddie et al., 1989). Resistance to baculovirus infection in some species is attributed to haemocytes avoiding infection, and also exhibiting apoptosis-like behaviour (Clarke & Clem, 2002; Feng et al., 2007; Trudeau et al., 2001).
In the context of mosquito-borne viruses, the route of virus dissemination is not well understood. Work with vector–virus systems including Aedes albopictus–Sindbis virus (SINV), Aedes aegypti–Dengue virus (DENV), Ochlerotatus taeniorhynchus–Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus and Culex pipiens pipiens–Rift Valley fever virus indicates the presence of viral antigen in tracheoles, which might shuttle the virus across the midgut basement membrane to initiate dissemination (Bowers et al., 2003; Romoser et al., 2004; Salazar et al., 2007). Midgut muscle tissue is proposed also as a means of amplification and dissemination for West Nile virus (WNV) (Girard et al., 2004).
Whether via the tracheoles or muscle tissue, mosquito-borne arboviruses inevitably encounter the haemocoel environment and haemocytes en route to the salivary glands. In response to pathogens, mosquito haemocytes phagocytose bacteria, yeast and Plasmodium parasites; mediate melanization of some nematode parasites, yeast and bacteria; and are involved in cell signalling events for the production of antimicrobial peptides together with the fat body (Bartholomay et al., 2004; Hernandez-Martinez et al., 2002; Hillyer et al., 2003a, b, 2004; Infanger et al., 2004; Lowenberger, 2001). The role of mosquito haemocytes in arbovirus replication, dissemination and antiviral responses is unknown. Infection of mosquito haemocytes with an arbovirus has been noted, but not characterized to date (Foy et al., 2004; Salazar et al., 2007; Sriurairatna & Bhamarapravati, 1977), which is not surprising, because these cells are few and difficult to collect (Castillo et al., 2006; Hillyer & Christensen, 2002).
Because haemocytes are critical to the outcome of baculovirus infections in lepidopteran larvae, and mosquito-borne arboviruses must traverse the haemocoel to get to the salivary glands, and haemocytes in the haemocoel respond to a variety of pathogens, we hypothesized that haemocytes respond to virus present in mosquito haemolymph. In order to explore the potential role of haemocytes in the amplification and dissemination, or mitigation, of arbovirus infection, we observed haemocytes after infecting mosquitoes with SINV (family Togaviridae, genus Alphavirus) transducing viruses designed to drive production of green fluorescent protein (GFP) (see Pierro et al., 2003).
Mosquitoes were infected with SINV TE/5'2J/GFP or MRE16-eGFP via intrathoracic injection. Intrathoracic injection is a standard procedure for delivering a consistent dose of virus to each experimental mosquito (see Bowers et al., 1995, 2003). Also, for comparative purposes, intrathoracic injection was the only method by which mosquitoes could be infected with both TE/5'2J/GFP and MRE16-eGFP because TE/5'2J/GFP is not infectious per os (Foy et al., 2004; Pierro et al., 2003). However, it should be noted that needle injection elicits a rapid cellular and humoral immune response in mosquitoes (Lai et al., 2001) and is not a natural route of arbovirus infection. Both TE/5'2J/GFP and MRE16-eGFP were produced using standard techniques (see Olson et al., 2000) and a volume of 0.5 µl of 1x108 p.f.u. ml–1 was injected per mosquito in all experiments. Haemolymph was collected by perfusion onto microscope slides.
Initial experiments were done with Ae. aegypti (Liverpool strain), a primary vector of Yellow fever and DENV viruses. Haemocyte infection was observed in three separate experiments at 6, 12, 18, 24, 36, 48, 60, 72, 84 and 96 h post injection (p.i.) using fluorescence and phase microscopy. Haemocytes from TE/5'2J/GFP infected mosquitoes exhibit GFP expression as early as 6 h p.i. and for 4 days p.i (Fig. 1). Although oenocytoids sometimes appear infected, granulocytes are the haemocyte type most often infected with virus. Granulocytes are the most abundant circulating haemocyte type; these phagocytic cells attach to glass surfaces and are easily distinguished by pseudopodia (Castillo et al., 2006; Hillyer & Christensen, 2002). At 48 h p.i. and at every time point thereafter, virus-infected cells exhibit bulbous extensions of the cytoplasm and plasma membrane. At 84 h p.i., the intensity of GFP fluorescence and number of infected granulocytes begins to decline. This does not appear to be a result of cell death, because total haemocyte numbers do not decrease.
|
In keeping with previous reports on TE/5'2J/GFP where virus was first observed 3 days p.i. (Pierro et al., 2003, 2007), virus is first observed in head squashes at 60 h p.i. in 87.5 % (7/8) of Ae. aegypti. At all later time points (72, 84 and 96 h p.i.), 100 % (10/10, 6/6 and 7/7 mosquitoes, respectively) of head tissues are virus infected.
GFP expression and accumulation is a valid measure of SINV-GFP replication (Foy et al., 2004; Olson et al., 2000; Pierro et al., 2003). However, to further confirm that virus replication takes place in haemocytes, the titre of TE/5'2J/GFP in Ae. aegypti haemolymph was calculated using an end-point dilution assay at different time points post injection, and expressed as TCID50 (Fig. 2). Haemolymph from saline-injected mosquitoes was used as a negative control and did not cause cytopathic effects. Virus titres from mosquito haemolymph are lowest at 6 h p.i., and increase over time. Titres from haemolymph collected at 24, 36, 48 and 60 h p.i. are significantly higher than those at earlier (6, 12 and 18 h p.i.) or later (72, 84 and 96 h p.i.) time points. The highest titre log TCID50 ml–1 (9.77±0.52) is observed at 48 h p.i. in the haemolymph of infected mosquitoes.
|
), (ii) infection is not evident during the observation period in the midgut, Malphigian tubules and ovaries in this (data not shown) and a previous study (Olson et al., 1996), and (iii) virus amplification is not evident in head tissue until 60 h p.i., 26 h after a significant increase in haemolymph virus titre occurs. Furthermore, in two previous studies in which SINV was used to silence phenol oxidase (PO), PO suppression was evident for 15 days p.i. (Shiao et al., 2001; Tamang et al., 2004). Because these viruses produce the gene of interest from a subgenomic promoter, antisense PO production necessitates virus replication, and because PO is a haemocyte-specific gene, virus replication had to occur in haemocytes.
To investigate whether the observed phenomenon was species specific, haemocytes from additional species of mosquitoes (Aedes triseriatus, Ae. albopictus and Culex pipiens) were observed after injection with TE/5'2J/GFP. Experiments were done with at least three different cohorts of mosquitoes. Haemocytes were checked for GFP expression at 24 and 48 h p.i., when the highest percentage of virus-infected haemocytes is observed in Ae. aegypti. In all three species, virus-infected haemocytes are evident at 24 and 48 h p.i. (Fig. 3a–l). The proportion of haemocytes infected with the virus is as follows at 24 and 48 h p.i.: 69 % and 76 % (Ae. triseriatus), 72 % and 65 % (Ae. albopictus), 53 % and 65 % (Cx. pipiens). As seen with Ae. aegypti, granulocytes exhibit the most GFP fluorescence in TE/5'2J/GFP-infected Ae. triseriatus, Ae. albopictus and Cx. pipiens.
|
). Infection of the head tissue of Ae. triseriatus, Ae. albopictus and Cx. pipiens is detected at 48 h p.i. in 88.8 % (8/9) of mosquitoes of all three species, earlier than was observed in the head tissue of infected Ae. aegypti.
SINV MRE16-eGFP was injected into the haemocoel of Ae. aegypti mosquitoes to investigate whether haemocytes can be infected with a virus that has the full complement of genes required to infect and disseminate from the midgut (see Foy et al., 2004; Myles et al., 2003). Haemocytes from Ae. aegypti injected with MRE16-eGFP exhibit fluorescence at 24, 48, 72 and 96 h p.i. (Fig. 3m–p
). The number of SINV MRE16-eGFP-infected haemocytes does not change significantly over time during this period. Granulocytes are the cell type most frequently infected with MRE16-eGFP.
Infection of Ae. aegypti head tissue with the MRE16-eGFP virus was assayed in head squashes in three separate experiments. Infection of head tissue is never observed at 24 h p.i. (0/12 mosquitoes tested). At 48 h p.i., 33 % (5/15) and at 72 h p.i., 87 % (13/15) of mosquitoes have evidence of GFP expression in the head. At 96 h p.i., 100 % (12/12) of mosquitoes tested have infected head tissue.
Mosquito haemolymph is suspected to be critical for systemic arbovirus infection (see Foy et al., 2004); however, it is generally believed that virions exist in a free state within the haemolymph. The results presented here show that haemocytes in the haemolymph can be infected with two different SINVs, in multiple species of mosquito. Moreover, our results show that this arbovirus can exploit haemocytes as a site for replication, rather than just existing free in the haemolymph. Since WNV takes 5–8 days to reach the salivary glands after dissemination from the midgut, Girard et al. (2004) speculated that some arboviruses may require an amplification site outside the midgut epithelium. Furthermore, Hardy et al. (1983) speculated that low concentrations of virus in a viraemic blood meal would necessitate a secondary amplification site other than the midgut epithelium. Based on this work with SINV, it becomes clear that haemocytes can function in virus incubation and replication, and so are a strong candidate site for arbovirus amplification en route to the salivary glands.
These data, together with previous studies indicating the involvement of tracheae in disseminating arboviruses (Romoser et al., 2004; Salazar et al., 2007), support an emerging model for dissemination of arbovirus, similar to the current model for baculovirus dissemination in lepidopteran larvae, where the virus disseminates from the midgut to the tracheoles and then into haemocytes that are critical for systemic infection (Engelhard et al., 1994; Keddie et al., 1989).
Since haemocytes are critical in the mosquito innate immune response, they could also serve as a barrier to arbovirus infection and dissemination. Documented barriers to infection and dissemination in a mosquito host include the midgut infection barrier, midgut escape barrier, salivary gland infection barrier (SIB) and salivary gland escape barrier (see Black et al., 2002). Overcoming these barriers is critical for an arbovirus to successfully replicate and disseminate, and to be transmitted to the next vertebrate host. Hardy et al. (1983) speculated that haemolymph could be an important determinant of the SIB because virus titres in the haemolymph of Cx. tarsalis susceptible to Western equine encephalitis virus were significantly higher than in those of refractory females.
This is the first study to demonstrate that mosquito haemocytes are a cell type in which arbovirus infection and replication occurs. Further studies of haemocyte infection post exposure to an arbovirus via blood feeding are necessary. However, the implications of these initial findings are significant because, depending on the vector–virus system, these cells could be a site of virus amplification, serve as a conduit for virus dissemination, or present a barrier to further dissemination.
|
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS |
|---|
|
REFERENCES |
|---|
|
TOPABSTRACTMAIN TEXTREFERENCES |
|---|
Black, W. C., IV, Bennett, K. E., Gorrochótegui-Escalante, N., Barillas-Mury, C. V., Fernández-Salas, I., de Lourdes Muñoz, M., Fárfan-Alé, J. A., Olson, K. E. & Beaty, B. J. (2002). Flavivirus susceptibility in Aedes aegypti. Arch Med Res 33, 379–388.[CrossRef][Medline]
Bowers, D. F., Abell, B. A. & Brown, D. T. (1995). Replication and tissue tropism of the alphavirus Sindbis in the mosquito Aedes albopictus. Virology 212, 1–12.
Bowers, D. F., Coleman, C. G. & Brown, D. T. (2003). Sindbis virus-associated pathology in Aedes albopictus (Diptera: Culicidae). J Med Entomol 40, 698–705.[Medline]
Castillo, J. C., Robertson, A. E. & Strand, M. R. (2006). Characterization of hemocytes from the mosquitoes Anopheles gambiae and Aedes aegypti. Insect Biochem Mol Biol 36, 891–903.[CrossRef][Medline]
Clarke, T. E. & Clem, R. J. (2002). Lack of involvement of haemocytes in the establishment and spread of infection in Spodoptera frugiperda larvae infected with the baculovirus Autographa californica M nucleopolyhedrovirus by intrahaemocoelic injection. J Gen Virol 83, 1565–1572.
Engelhard, E. K., Kam-Morgan, L. N., Washburn, J. O. & Volkman, L. E. (1994). The insect tracheal system: a conduit for the systemic spread of Autographa californica M nuclear polyhedrosis virus. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 91, 3224–3227.
Feng, G., Yu, Q., Hu, C., Wang, Y., Yuan, G., Chen, Q., Yang, K. & Pang, Y. (2007). Apoptosis is induced in the haemolymph and fat body of Spodoptera exigua larvae upon oral inoculation with Spodoptera litura nucleopolyhedrovirus. J Gen Virol 88, 2185–2193.
Foy, B. D., Myles, K. M., Pierro, D. J., Sanchez-Vargas, I., Uhlirova, M., Jindra, M., Beaty, B. J. & Olson, K. E. (2004). Development of a new Sindbis virus transducing system and its characterization in three Culicine mosquitoes and two Lepidopteran species. Insect Mol Biol 13, 89–100.[CrossRef][Medline]
Girard, Y. A., Klingler, K. A. & Higgs, S. (2004). West Nile virus dissemination and tissue tropisms in orally infected Culex pipiens quinquefasciatus. Vector Borne Zoonotic Dis 4, 109–122.[CrossRef][Medline]
Hardy, J. L., Houk, E. J., Kramer, L. D. & Reeves, W. C. (1983). Intrinsic factors affecting vector competence of mosquitoes for arboviruses. Annu Rev Entomol 28, 229–262.[CrossRef][Medline]
Hernandez-Martinez, S., Lanz, H., Rodriguez, M. H., Gonzalez-Ceron, L. & Tsutsumi, V. (2002). Cellular-mediated reactions to foreign organisms inoculated into the hemocoel of Anopheles albimanus (Diptera: Culicidae). J Med Entomol 39, 61–69.[Medline]
Hillyer, J. F. & Christensen, B. M. (2002). Characterization of hemocytes from the yellow fever mosquito, Aedes aegypti. Histochem Cell Biol 117, 431–440.[CrossRef][Medline]
Hillyer, J. F., Schmidt, S. L. & Christensen, B. M. (2003a). Hemocyte-mediated phagocytosis and melanization in the mosquito Armigeres subalbatus following immune challenge by bacteria. Cell Tissue Res 313, 117–127.[CrossRef][Medline]
Hillyer, J. F., Schmidt, S. L. & Christensen, B. M. (2003b). Rapid phagocytosis and melanization of bacteria and Plasmodium sporozoites by hemocytes of the mosquito Aedes aegypti. J Parasitol 89, 62–69.[CrossRef][Medline]
Hillyer, J. F., Schmidt, S. L. & Christensen, B. M. (2004). The antibacterial innate immune response by the mosquito Aedes aegypti is mediated by hemocytes and independent of Gram type and pathogenicity. Microbes Infect 6, 448–459.[CrossRef][Medline]
Infanger, L. C., Rocheleau, T. A., Bartholomay, L. C., Johnson, J. K., Fuchs, J., Higgs, S., Chen, C. C. & Christensen, B. M. (2004). The role of phenylalanine hydroxylase in melanotic encapsulation of filarial worms in two species of mosquitoes. Insect Biochem Mol Biol 34, 1329–1338.[CrossRef][Medline]
Keddie, B. A., Aponte, G. W. & Volkman, L. E. (1989). The pathway of infection of Autographa californica nuclear polyhedrosis virus in an insect host. Science 243, 1728–1730.
Lai, S. C., Chen, C. C. & Hou, R. F. (2001). Electron microscopic observations on wound-healing in larvae of the mosquito Armigeres subalbatus (Diptera: Culicidae). J Med Entomol 38, 836–843.[Medline]
Lowenberger, C. (2001). Innate immune response of Aedes aegypti. Insect Biochem Mol Biol 31, 219–229.[CrossRef][Medline]
Myles, K. M., Pierro, D. J. & Olson, K. E. (2003). Deletions in the putative cell receptor-binding domain of Sindbis virus strain MRE16 E2 glycoprotein reduce midgut infectivity in Aedes aegypti. J Virol 77, 8872–8881.
Olson, K. E., Higgs, S., Gaines, P. J., Powers, A. M., Davis, B. S., Kamrud, K. I., Carlson, J. O., Blair, C. D. & Beaty, B. J. (1996). Genetically engineered resistance to dengue-2 virus transmission in mosquitoes. Science 272, 884–886.[Abstract]
Olson, K. E., Myles, K. M., Seabaugh, R. C., Higgs, S., Carlson, J. O. & Beaty, B. J. (2000). Development of a Sindbis virus expression system that efficiently expresses green fluorescent protein in midguts of Aedes aegypti following per os infection. Insect Mol Biol 9, 57–65.[CrossRef][Medline]
Pierro, D. J., Myles, K. M., Foy, B. D., Beaty, B. J. & Olson, K. E. (2003). Development of an orally infectious Sindbis virus transducing system that efficiently disseminates and expresses green fluorescent protein in Aedes aegypti. Insect Mol Biol 12, 107–116.[CrossRef][Medline]
Pierro, D. J., Powers, E. L. & Olson, K. E. (2007). Genetic determinants of Sindbis virus strain TR339 affecting midgut infection in the mosquito Aedes aegypti. J Gen Virol 88, 1545–1554.
Romoser, W. S., Wasieloski, L. P., Jr, Pushko, P., Kondig, J. P., Lerdthusnee, K., Neira, M. & Ludwig, G. V. (2004). Evidence for arbovirus dissemination conduits from the mosquito (Diptera: Culicidae) midgut. J Med Entomol 41, 467–475.[Medline]
Salazar, M. I., Richardson, J. H., Sanchez-Vargas, I., Olson, K. E. & Beaty, B. J. (2007). Dengue virus type 2: replication and tropisms in orally infected Aedes aegypti mosquitoes. BMC Microbiol 7, 9[Medline]
Shiao, S. H., Higgs, S., Adelman, Z., Christensen, B. M., Liu, S. H. & Chen, C. C. (2001). Effect of prophenoloxidase expression knockout on the melanization of microfilariae in the mosquito Armigeres subalbatus. Insect Mol Biol 10, 315–321.[CrossRef][Medline]
Sriurairatna, S. & Bhamarapravati, N. (1977). Replication of dengue-2 virus in Aedes albopictus mosquitoes. An electron microscopic study. Am J Trop Med Hyg 26, 1199–1205.
Tamang, D., Tseng, S. M., Huang, C. Y., Tsao, I. Y., Chou, S. Z., Higgs, S., Christensen, B. M. & Chen, C. C. (2004). The use of a double subgenomic Sindbis virus expression system to study mosquito gene function: effects of antisense nucleotide number and duration of viral infection on gene silencing efficiency. Insect Mol Biol 13, 595–602.[CrossRef][Medline]
Trudeau, D., Washburn, J. O. & Volkman, L. E. (2001). Central role of hemocytes in Autographa californica M nucleopolyhedrovirus pathogenesis in Heliothis virescens and Helicoverpa zea. J Virol 75, 996–1003.
Received 23 June 2008;
accepted 30 October 2008.
| ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| HOME | HELP | FEEDBACK | SUBSCRIPTIONS | ARCHIVE | SEARCH | TABLE OF CONTENTS |
| INT J SYST EVOL MICROBIOL | MICROBIOLOGY | J GEN VIROL |
| J MED MICROBIOL | ALL SGM JOURNALS | |
